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Monday, August 27, 2018

C "Hello, World!" Program | Explanation of hello world program in c

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<b><span style="color: blue;">C "Hello, World!" Program | Explanation of hello world program in c</span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Introduction – “hello, world” This is an exercise for
creating your very first Alice program. This exercise is good for creating you
very first computer program or your very first computer program in Alice. You
may want to reference the lesson Programming in Alice or the Code Editor How to
resources. These materials can be downloaded and printed for offline use from
Alice.org The History of “hello, world” A “hello, world” program has a long
history in computer science. It is commonly used as a program that can be
created to show that a programming environment is properly working but also to
prove that you have learned enough about a programming language that you can
make this program work and display hello, world. This program has a long
history with novice programmers as being their very first executed program. The
actual origin of the program dates back to the late 1960’s and early 1970’s
with some debate as to the very first use but has been attributed to Brian
Kernighan and Martin Richards. It is documented as an example program in the
book The C Programming Language<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%;">#include <stdio .h="">main( ) { printf("hello,
world\n"); Adding an Object The first step will be to add an object to
your scene. You may wish to watch the Videos or check the Quick Reference
Guides for the How To: Adding Objects to a Scene 1. Start Alice 2. Select the a
template from the Blank Slates section of the Select Template Dialog box. 3.
Click on the Setup Scene button to go to the Scene Editor of Alice. 4. Add a
character of your choice by double clicking it and adding it to the center of the
scene or dragging and dropping it into the world 5. Click on the Edit Code
button to return to the Code Editor Adding a Procedural Method (statements)
Next you will write your very first Alice program. You may wish to watch the
Videos or check the Quick Reference Guides for the How To: Using Procedures
Overview. 6. Select your character from the object menu of the methods panel.
7. Drag the say tile into the myFirstMethod tab of the editor. 8. Select the
Custom TextString from the pop up drop down. 9. Input “hello, world” in the
input field. 10. Save the project. Run Your Program Next you will run your
program and officially become an Alice/Computer programmer! 11. Press the Run
button found on the camera view window. Congratulations!<o:p></o:p></stdio></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #9999aa; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A simple C
program to display "Hello, World!" on the screen. Since, it's a very
simple program, it is often used to illustrate the syntax of a programming
language.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #252830; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">To
understand this example, you should have the knowledge of following </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #2b6dad;">C Programming </span><span style="color: #252830;">topics:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #252830; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 23.0pt;">Program to Display "Hello, World!"<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: grey; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">#include</span><span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;"> </span><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;"><stdio.h></span><span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: darkblue; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">In</span><span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;"> main ()<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">{<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">   </span><span style="color: grey; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">// printf () displays the string
inside quotation</span><span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">   Printf (</span><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">"Hello, World!"</span><span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">);<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">   </span><span style="color: darkblue; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">return</span><span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;"> </span><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">0</span><span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">}</span><span style="color: #252830; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #555555; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Output</span></b><span style="color: #252830; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #252830; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 11.5pt;">Hello, World!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #555555; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">How "Hello, World!" program works?</span></b><span style="color: #252830; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; color: #252830; line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">#include
     <stdio.h></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> is a preprocessor
     command. This command tells compiler to include the contents of </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">stdio.h</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> (standard input and output) file in the program.<br />
     The </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">stdio.h</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> file
     contains functions such as </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">scanf()</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> and </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">print()</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> to take input and display output respectively.<br />
     If you use </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">printf()</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> function
     without writing </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">#include <stdio.h></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">, the program will not be compiled.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; color: #252830; line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The execution of a C program
     starts from the </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">main()</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> function.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; color: #252830; line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">printf()</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> is a library function to send formatted output to
     the screen. In this program, the </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">printf()</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> displays </span><span style="font-family: "courier new"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Hello, World!</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> text
     on the screen.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; color: #252830; line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The </span><span style="background: #eff0f1; font-family: "consolas"; font-size: 10.5pt;">return 0;</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> statement is the "Exit status" of the
     program. In simple terms, program ends with this statement.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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C "Hello, World!" Program | Explanation of hello world program in c Introduction – “hello, world” This is an exercise for...

Variable Declarations in C programming

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<b>A variable</b> is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our programs can
manipulate. Each variable in C has a specific type, which determines the size and layout of
the variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and the
set of operations that can be applied to the variable.
The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the underscore character. It
must begin with either a letter or an underscore. Upper and lowercase letters are distinct
because C is case-sensitive. Based on the basic types explained in previous chapter, there
will be the following basic variable types:
Type Description
Char Typically a single octet(one byte). This is an integer type.
Int The most natural size of integer for the machine.
Float A single-precision floating point value.
Double A double-precision floating point value.
Void Represents the absence of type.
C programming language also allows to define various other types of variables, which we
will cover in subsequent chapters like Enumeration, Pointer, Array, Structure, Union, etc.
For this chapter, let us study only basic variable types.
Variable Definition in C:
A variable definition means to tell the compiler where and how much to create the storage for the
variable. A variable definition specifies a data type and contains a list of one or more variables of
that type as follows:
type variable_list;
Here, type must be a valid C data type including char, w_char, int, float, double, bool or any userdefined
object, etc., and variable_list may consist of one or more identifier names separated by
commas. Some valid declarations are shown here:</div>
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A variable
Allows access and information about what is in
memory i.e. a storage location
A symbolic name (an identifier) that is associated
with a value and whose associated value may be
changed
The usual way to reference a stored value........</div>
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int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;
double d;
The line int i, j, k; both declares and defines the variables i, j and k; which instructs the compiler
to create variables named i, j and k of type int.
Variables can be initialized (assigned an initial value) in their declaration. The initializer consists of
an equal sign followed by a constant expression as follows:
type variable_name = value;
Some examples are:
extern int d = 3, f = 5; // declaration of d and f.
int d = 3, f = 5; // definition and initializing d and f.
byte z = 22; // definition and initializes z.
char x = 'x'; // the variable x has the value 'x'.
For definition without an initializer: variables with static storage duration are implicitly initialized
with NULL (all bytes have the value 0); the initial value of all other variables is undefined.
Variable Declaration in C:
A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that there is one variable existing with
the given type and name so that compiler proceed for further compilation without needing
complete detail about the variable. A variable declaration has its meaning at the time of
compilation only, compiler needs actual variable declaration at the time of linking of the program.
A variable declaration is useful when you are using multiple files and you define your variable in
one of the files, which will be available at the time of linking of the program. You will
use extern keyword to declare a variable at any place. Though you can declare a variable multiple
times in your C program but it can be defined only once in a file, a function or a block of code.
Example
Try the following example, where variables have been declared at the top, but they have been
defined and initialized inside the main function:
#include <stdio .h="">
// Variable definition:
extern int a, b;
extern int c;
extern float f;
int main ()
{
// Variable definition:
int a, b;
int c;
float f;
// actual initialization</stdio></div>
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<stdio .h="">a =10;</stdio></div>
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<stdio .h=""> b =20;
 c = a + b;
 printf("value of c : %d \n", c);
 f = 70.0/3.0;
 printf("value of f : %f \n", f);
 return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
value of c : 30
value of f : 23.333334
Same concept applies on function declaration where you provide a function name at the time of its
declaration and its actual definition can be given anywhere else. For example:
// function declaration
int func();
int main()
{
 // function call
 int i = func();
}
// function definition
int func()
{
 return 0;
} </stdio></div>
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Purpose: define a variable before it is used.
Format: type identifier [, identifier] ;
Initial value: can be assigned
int i, j, k;
char a, b, c = ‘D’;
int i = 123;
float f = 3.1415926535;
double f = 3.1415926535;
strings later… array of characters
Type conversion: aka, type casting
Coercion, be very cautious.
(type) identifier;
 int i = 65; /* what if 258 */
 char a; /* range -128 to 127 */
 a = (char) i; /* What is the value of a? */ </div>
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A variable is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our programs can manipulate. Each variable in C has a specific type, wh...

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<b><span style="color: red;"><u>Datatypes in C Programming</u></span></b></h2>
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<b>Datatypes</b> in C Program DATA TYPES  C supports several different types of data, each of which may be represented differently within the computer’s memory. The basic data types are listed below. Typical memory requirements are also given. (The memory requirements for each data type will determine the permissible range of values for that data type. Note that the memory requirements for each data type may vary from one C compiler to another.)  int integer quantity 2 bytes or one word (varies from one compiler to another) char single character 1 byte float floating-point number (i.e., a number containing 1 word (4 bytes) a decimal point andor an exponent) double double-precision floating-point number (i.e., more 2 words (8 bytes) significant figures, and an exponent which may be larger in magnitude)  C compilers written for personal computers or small minicomputers (i.e., computers whose natural word size is less than 32 bits) generally represent a word as 4 bytes (32 bits). The basic data types can be augmented by the use of the data type qualijiers short, long, signed and unsigned. For example, integer quantities can be defined as short int, long int or unsigned int (these data types are usually written simply as short, long or unsigned, and are understood to be integers). The interpretation of a qualified integer data type will vary from one C compiler to another, though there are some commonsense relationships. Thus, a short int may require less memory than an ordinary int or it may require the same amount of memory as an ordinary int, but it will never exceed an ordinary int in word length. Similarly, a long int may require the same amount of memory as an ordinary int or it may require more memory, but it will never be less than an ordinary int . If short int and int both have the same memory requirements (e.g., 2 bytes), then long int will generally have double the requirements (e.g., 4 bytes). Or if int and long int both have the same memory requiremements (e.g., 4 bytes) then short int will generally have half the memory requirements (e.g., 2 bytes). Remember that the specifics will vary from one C compiler to another. An unsigned int has the same memory requirements as an ordinary int. However, in the case of an ordinary int (or a short int or a long int), the leftmost bit is reserved for the sign. With an unsigned int, all of the bits are used to represent the numerical value. Thus, an unsigned int can be approximately twice as large as an ordinary int (though, of course, negative values are not permitted). For example, if an ordinary int can vary from -32,768 to +32,767 (which is typical for a 2-byte int), then an unsigned int will be allowed to vary from 0 to 65,535. The unsigned qualifier can also be applied to other qualified ints, e.g., unsigned short int or unsigned long int. The char type is used to represent individual characters. Hence, the char type will generally require only one byte of memory. Each char type has an equivalent integer interpretation, however, so that a char is a really a special kind of short integer (see Sec. 2.4). With most compilers, a char data type will permit a range of values extending from 0 to 255. Some compilers represent the char data type as having a range of values extending from -128 to +127. There may also be unsigned char data (with typical values ranging from 0 to 255), or signed char data (with values ranging from -128 to +127). Some compilers permit the qualifier long to be applied to float or to double, e.g., long float, or long double. However, the meaning of these data types will vary from one C compiler to another. Thus, long float may be equivalent to double. Moreover, long double may be equivalent to double, or it may refer to a separate, “extra-large” double-precision data type requiring more than two words of memory. </div>
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<b>CONSTANTS </b></div>
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There are four basic types of constants in C. They are integer constants,floating-pointconstants, character constants and string constants (there are also enumeration constants, which are discussed in Sec. 14.1). Moreover, there are several different kinds of integer and floating-point constants, as discussed below. Integer and floating-point constants represent numbers. They are often referred to collectively as numeric-type constants. The following rules apply to all numeric-type constants. 1. Commas and blank spaces cannot be included within the constant. 2. The constant can be preceded by a minus (-) sign if desired. (Actually the minus sign is an operator that changes the sign of a positive constant, though it can be thought of as a part of the constant itself.) 3. The value of a constant cannot exceed specified minimum and maximum bounds. For each type of constant, these bounds will vary from one C compiler to another. Let us consider each type of constant individually. </div>
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Integer Constants </div>
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An integer constant is an integer-valued number. Thus it consists of a sequence of digits. Integer constants can be written in three different number systems: decimal (base lO), octal (base 8) and hexadecimal (base 16). Beginning programmers rarely, however, use anything other than decimal integer constants. A decimal integer constant can consist of any combination of digits taken from the set 0 through 9. If the constant contains two or more digits, the first digit must be something other than 0. </div>
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EXAMPLE 2.4 Several valid decimal integer constants are shown below. </div>
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0 1 743 5280 32767 9999 </div>
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The following decimal integer constants are written incorrectly for the reasons stated. </div>
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12,245 illegal character (, ). 36.0 illegal character (.). 10 20 30 illegal character (blank space). 123-45-6789 illegal character (-). 0900 the first digit cannot be a zero. </div>
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An octal integer constant can consist of any combination of digits taken from the set 0 through 7. However the first digit must be 0,in order to identiQ the constant as an octal number. </div>
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EXAMPLE 2.5 Several valid octal integer constants are shown below. </div>
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0 01 0743 077777 </div>
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The following octal integer constants are written incorrectly for the reasons stated. </div>
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743 Does not begin with 0. 05280 Illegal digit (8). 0777.777 Illegal character ( .). </div>
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Datatypes in C Programming Datatypes in C Program DATA TYPES C supports several different types of data, each of which may be repr...

TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

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 <b><span style="color: blue;"><u>TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES </u></span></b></div>
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<b>There</b> are many different languages can be used to program a computer. The most basic of these is machine language--a collection of very detailed, cryptic instructions that control the computer’s internal circuitry. This is the natural dialect of the computer. Very few computer programs are actually written in machine language, however, for two significant reasons: First, because machine language is very cumbersome to work with and second, because every different type of computer has its own unique instruction set. Thus, a machine-language program written for one type of computer cannot be run on another type of computer without significant alterations. Usually, a computer program will be written in some high-level language, whose instruction set is more compatible with human languages and human thought processes. Most of these are general-purpose languages such as C. (Some other popular general-purpose languages are Pascal, Fortran and BASIC.) There are also various special-purpose languages that are specifically designed for some particular type of application. Some common examples are CSMP and SIMAN, which are special-purpose simulation languages, and LISP, a Zistprocessing language that is widely used for artificial intelligence applications. As a rule, a single instruction in a high-level language will be equivalent to several instructions in machine language. This greatly simplifies the task of writing complete, correct programs. Furthermore, the rules for programming in a particular high-level language are much the same for all computers, so that a program written for one computer can generally be run on many different computers with little or no alteration. Thus, we see that a high-level language offers three significant advantages over machine language: simplicity, uniformity and portability (i.e., machine independence). A program that is written in a high-level language must, however, be translated into machine language before it can be executed. This is known as compilation or interpretation, depending on how it is carried out. (Compilers translate the entire program into machine language before executing any of the instructions. Interpreters, on the other hand, proceed through a program by translating and then executing single instructions or small groups of instructions.) In either case, the translation is carried out automatically within the computer. In fact, inexperienced programmers may not even be aware that this process is taking place, since they typically see only their original high-level program, the input data, and the calculated results. Most implementations of C operate as compilers. A compiler or interpreter is itself a computer program. It accepts a program written in a high-level language (e.g., C) as input, and generates a corresponding machine-language program as output. The original high-level program is called the source program, and the resulting machine-language program is called the object program. Every computer must have its own compiler or interpreter for a particular high-level language. It is generally more convenient to develop a new program using an interpreter rather than a compiler. Once an error-free program has been developed, however, a compiled version will normally execute much faster than an interpreted version.<br />
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 <b>***INTRODUCTION TO C </b><br />
<b><br /></b>
C is a general-purpose, structured programming language. Its instructions consist of terms that resemble algebraic expressions, augmented by certain English keywords such as if, else, for, do and while. In this respect C resembles other high-level structured programming languages such as Pascal and Fortran. C also contains certain additional features, however, that allow it to be used at a lower level, thus bridging the gap between machine language and the more conventional high-level languages. This flexibility allows C to be used for systems programming (e.g., for writing operating systems) as well as for applications programming (e.g., for writing a program to solve a complicated system of mathematical equations, or for writing a program to bill customers). C is characterized by the ability to write very concise source programs, due in part to the large number of operators included within the language. It has a relatively small instruction set, though actual implementations include extensive library functions which enhance the basic instructions. Furthermore, the language encourages users to write additional library functions of their own. Thus the features and capabilities of the language can easily be extended by the user.<br />
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<b>***INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS</b><br />
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C compilers are commonly available for computers of all sizes, and C interpreters are becoming increasingly common. The compilers are usually compact, and they generate object programs that are small and highly efficient when compared with programs compiled from other high-level languages. The interpreters are less efficient, though they are easier to use when developing a new program. Many programmers begin with an interpreter, and then switch to a compiler once the program has been debugged (i.e., once all of the programming errors have been removed). Another important characteristic of C is that its programs are highly portable, even more so than with other high-level languages. The reason for this is that C relegates most computer-dependent features to its library functions. Thus, every version of C is accompanied by its own set of library functions, which are written for the particular characteristics of the host computer. These library fbnctions are relatively standardized, however, and each individual library function is generally accessed in the same manner from one version of C to another. Therefore, most C programs can be processed on many different computers with little or no alteration.<br />
History of C.<br />
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C was originally developed in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. (now a part of AT&T). It is an outgrowth of two earlier languages, called BCPL and B, which were also developed at Bell Laboratories. C was largely confined to use within Bell Laboratories until 1978, when Brian Kernighan and Ritchie published a definitive description of the language.* The Kernighan and Ritchie description is commonly referred to as “K&R C.” Following the publication of the K&R description, computer professionals, impressed with C’s many desirable features, began to promote the use of the language. By the mid 1980s, the popularity of C had become widespread. Numerous C compilers and interpreters had been written for computers of all sizes, and many commercial application programs had been developed. Moreover, many commercial software products that were originally written in other languages were rewritten in C in order to take advantage of its efficiency and its portability. Early commercial implementations of C differed somewhat from Kernighan and Ritchie’s original definition, resulting in minor incompatibilities between different implementations of the language. These differences diminished the portability that the language attempted to provide. Consequently, the American National Standards Institute** (ANSI committee X3J11) has developed a standardized definition of the C language. Virtually all commercial C compilers and interpreters now adhere to the ANSI standard. Many also provide additional features of their own. In the early 1980s, another high-level programming language, called C++,was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup*** at the Bell Laboratories. C++ is built upon C, and hence all standard C features are available within C++.However, C++ is not merely an extension of C. Rather, it incorporates several new fundamental concepts that form a basis for object-oriented programming--a new programming paradigm that is of interest to professional programmers. We will not describe C++ in this book, except to mention that a knowledge of C is an excellent starting point for learning C++. This book describes the features of C that are included in the ANSI standard and are supported by commercial C compilers and interpreters. The reader who has mastered this material should have no difficulty in customizing a C program to any particular implementation of the language.<br />
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<b>***Structure of a C Program </b><br />
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Every C program consists of one or more modules calledfunctions. One of the functions must be called main. The program will always begin by executing the main function, which may access other functions. Any other function definitions must be defined separately, either ahead of or after main (more about this later, in Chaps. 7 and 8).<br />
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* Brim W.Kernighan and Dennis M.Ritchie, The CProgramming Language, Prentice-Hall, 1978. ** ANSI Standard X3.159-1989. American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY,10018. (See also Brim W. ***Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie, The C Programming Language, 2d ed., Prentice-Hall, 1988.) Stroustrup, Bjame, The C++ Programming Language, 2d ed., Addison-Wesley, 1991.<br />
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TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES There are many different languages can be used to program a ...

c vs c++

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<b><u>c vs c++</u></b></h2>
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Before concluding this chapter, a few words about C++ are in order. Newcomers are sometimes confused about what C++ is and how it differs from C. In short, C++ is an object-oriented programming language that was built upon the foundation of C. In general terms, C is a subset of C++, or conversely, C++ is a superset of C.</div>
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In general, you can use a C++ compiler to compile a C program. In fact, today most compilers handle both C and C++ programs. Thus, most programmers will use a C++ compiler to compile their C code! However, since C++ was built upon the 1989 C standard, you must restrict your C code to the features defined by that standard (which are the features described in Part One of this book).</div>
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There is one thing that you must be careful about when using a C++ compiler to compile a C program: the file extension. By convention, C programs use the .C extension. C++ programs use .CPP. Don't accidentally give your C program a .CPP extension. Differences between the two languages might prevent a valid C program from being compiled as if it were a C++ program. By specifying the .C extension, you are telling the C++ compiler to perform a ''C compile."</div>
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NOTE:- </div>
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For a complete description of the C++ language, see C++: The Complete Reference, by Herbert Schildt (Berkeley, CA: Osborne/McGraw-Hill).</div>
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c vs c++ Before concluding this chapter, a few words about C++ are in order. Newcomers are sometimes confused about what C++ is and...

Compilers vs. Interpreter in C programming

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<b><span style="color: blue;">Compilers vs. Interpreters</span></b></h2>
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<b>It is important to understand that a computer language defines the nature of a program and not the way that the program will be executed. There are two general methods by which a program can be executed. It can be compiled, or it can be interpreted. Although programs written in any computer language can be compiled or interpreted, some languages are designed more for one form of execution than the other. For example, Java was designed to be interpreted, and C was designed to be compiled. However, in the case of C, it is important to understand that it was specifically optimized as a compiled language. Although C interpreters have been written and are available in some environments (especially as debugging aids or experimental platforms like the interpreter developed in Part Six of this book), C was developed with compilation in mind. Therefore, you will almost certainly be using a C compiler and not a C interpreter when developing your C programs. Since the difference between a compiler and interpreter may not be clear to all readers, the following brief description will clarify matters.</b></div>
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<b>In its simplest form, an interpreter reads the source code of your program one line at a time, performing the specific instructions contained in that line. This is the way earlier versions of BASIC worked. In languages such as Java, a program's source code is first converted into an intermediary form that is then interpreted. In either case, a run-time interpreter is still required to be present to execute the program.</b></div>
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<b>A compiler reads the entire program and converts it into object code, which is a translation of the program's source code into a form that the computer can execute directly. Object code is also referred to as binary code or machine code. Once the program is compiled, a line of source code is no longer meaningful in the execution of your program.</b></div>
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<b>In general, an interpreted program runs slower than a compiled program. Remember, a compiler converts a program's source code into object code that a computer can execute directly. Therefore, compilation is a one-time cost, while interpretation incurs an overhead each time a program is run.</b></div>
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<b>The Form of a C Program</b></div>
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<b>Table 1-2 lists the 32 keywords defined by the C89 standard. These are also the C keywords that form the C subset of C++. Table 1-3 shows the keywords added by C99. The keywords, combined with the formal C syntax, form the C programming language.</b></div>
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<b>In addition to the standard keywords, many compilers add nonstandard keywords that better exploit their operating environment. For example, several compilers include keywords to manage the memory organization of the 8086 family of processors, to support interlanguage programming, and to access interrupts. Here is a list of some commonly used extended keywords:</b></div>
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<b>asm _ds huge pascal</b></div>
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<b>cdecl _es interrupt _ss</b></div>
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<b>_cs far near</b></div>
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<b> </b></div>
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<b>Your compiler may also support other extensions that help it take better advantage of its specific environment.</b></div>
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<b>auto double int struct break else long switch case enum register typedef char extern return union const float short unsigned continue for signed void default goto sizeof volatile do if static while </b></div>
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<b>The Library and Linking:- </b></h3>
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Technically speaking, you can create a useful, functional C program that consists solely of statements involving only the C keywords. However, this is quite rare because C does not provide keywords that perform such things as input/output (I/O) operations, high-level mathematical computations, or character handling. As a result, most programs include calls to various functions contained in C's standard library.</div>
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All C compilers come with a standard library of functions that perform most commonly needed tasks. Standard C specifies a minimal set of functions that will be supported by all compilers. However, your compiler will probably contain many other functions. For example, the standard library does not define any graphics functions, but your compiler will probably include some.</div>
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When you call a library function, the C compiler ''remembers" its name. Later, the linker combines the code you wrote with the object code already found in the standard library. This process is called linking. Some compilers have their own linker, while others use the standard linker supplied by your operating system.</div>
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The functions in the library are in relocatable format. This means that the memory addresses for the various machine-code instructions have not been absolutely defined— only offset information has been kept. When your program links with the functions in the standard library, these memory offsets are used to create the actual addresses used. Several technical manuals and books explain this process in more</div>
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<br />Compiling a C Program:</h3>
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Creating an executable form of your C program consists of these three steps:</div>
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1. Creating your program</div>
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2. Compiling your program</div>
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3. Linking your program with whatever functions are needed from the library</div>
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Today, most compilers supply integrated programming environments that include an editor. Most also include stand-alone compilers. For stand-alone versions, you must have a separate editor to create your program. In either case, be careful: Compilers only accept standard text files for input. For example, your compiler will not accept files created by certain word processors because they contain control codes and nonprinting characters.</div>
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The exact method you use to compile your program will depend upon what compiler you are using. Also, how linking is accomplished will vary between compilers and environments; for example, it may be included as part of the compiler or as a stand-alone application. Consult your compiler's documentation for details.</div>
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C's Memory Map:</h3>
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A compiled C program creates and uses four logically distinct regions of memory. The first region is the memory that actually holds the program's executable code. The next region is memory where global variables are stored. The remaining two regions are the stack and the heap. The stack is used for a great many things while your program executes. It holds the return addresses of function calls, arguments to functions, and local variables. It will also save the current state of the CPU. The heap is a region of free memory that your program can use via C's dynamic memory allocation functions.</div>
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Compilers vs. Interpreters It is important to understand that a computer language defines the nature of a program and not the way t...

Freelancer Hridoy :: Programmer, Youtuber, Android App Developer & Social Entrepreneur

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Monday, August 27, 2018

C "Hello, World!" Program | Explanation of hello world program in c

Variable Declarations in C programming

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Wednesday, August 22, 2018

Datatypes in C Programming

TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Monday, August 20, 2018

c vs c++

Compilers vs. Interpreter in C programming

At a glance

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Java Programming

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